Short take on Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development connects two important factors: development and environment. It supports the notion of maintaining equilibrium between developmental works and environmental obligations. In recent times, this concept has been extended to the themes of political sustainability and cultural sustainability too. Therefore, as this concept covers all the factors influencing Globalization, it has influences at a global scale.

For example, I have heard of concepts like the Carbon Trading where the developed countries have to pay amounts to the developing countries that have helped in balancing carbon emissions from industrial activities of developed ones. I personally think that such practices could help the weaker nations to become economically stable and the industrialized ones to be environmentally responsible, both of them contributing to promote sustainability throughout the globe.

In the same way, we can apply the concepts of sustainable development to prevent over exploitation of natural resources like some countries like Brazil have done in past to fulfill short term development goals (Globalization101.org, n.d.).

Similarly, this has also made us aware of our energy consumptions, and helped in developing innovative fields like renewable and alternative energy. All of these have opened the door to a greener development worldwide.  

References:

Wikipedia (2012), Sustainable Development, Accessed: December 19, 2012, Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development

Globalization101.org (n.d.), Development and Globalization, Sustainable Development, p. 15-16, Accessed: December 19, 2012, Retrieved from: http://my.uopeople.org/file.php/443/glob101devandglob.pdf

Biology and Human Behavior

Human beings are made up of biological components with the cells being the smallest building blocks. The specific cells make different organs and the organs make the whole body. That is why, each and every activity of our body, is related with biology. In the same way, our behavior is also shaped by the atomic activities that take place in our body. Behind our every visible actions, there lie some microscopic actions taking place somewhere in our body.

The most important biological elements in shaping our behaviors are the nervous system and endocrine system. These two systems are interrelated. The nervous system transmits the “information between different parts of the body” (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 62) and the endocrine system regulates the chemical (hormones) in the body. The glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones and the nervous system transmits those hormones throughout the body in order to produce specific behaviors in the body. For instance, the testosterone (male sex hormone) is related with aggressiveness in males (also in females) (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 88). If the hormone is only secreted but not transmitted over the body, it will have no effect. So, the nervous system must pass on testosterone throughout the body in order to produce “aggressive” behavior. In this way, the nervous system and the endocrine system work together, to influence our behaviors.

The sex hormones have a vital role in determining a person’s social thoughts and behavior. It is sex hormones that distinguish males and females as they grow up. The example in the previous paragraph can also be applied to this context. Since testosterone is produced in males, they are generally more aggressive than females. Similarly, testosterone is also related with the “muscle growth and strength” (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 88). So, males generally show the qualities like protecting their families and doing physically tough works. In case of females, their sex hormones prepare them for pregnancy, and so, in my view, the feeling of motherhood and care might be related with female sex hormones.

Hormones have marked influence on sensation and perception. This is supported by the fact that sensation and perception are incomplete without the process of transduction “the conversion of stimuli detected by receptor cells to electrical impulses that are then transported to the brain” (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 94). The hormones when present in the body affect the way in which the electric pulses are transmitted i.e. transduction, and thus affect the process of sensation and perception. For example, when stress hormones are present in the body, it takes some time for the person to sense and perceive external disturbance. She/he might be lost in a worrying trance and may not hear someone calling him.

Therefore, the nervous system and the endocrine system, work together, to influence our behavior. They have a mutual relationship in determining our activities. The hormones play huge role in determining our thoughts and social behavior including sensation and perception. They also determine contrasting characteristics of two genders. So, our behavior is also influenced by the biological components in our body along with cognitive, motivational and emotional factors.

References:

Stangor, Charles (n.d), Introduction to Psychology, Brain, Bodies and Behavior, Sense and Perceiving, p. 62, 88 and 94

EU: Open market for improved output

The elimination of trade barriers brought more open trade between European countries. The countries converged into a sort of common economy, as if they were the states of a single country (Rittenberg and Tregarthen, n.d.). Regarding this system, one exciting thing we can think of is that now a German citizen should be able to pay his food bill at an Italian restaurant in Spain with a Euro banknote printed in France. So, it can be said that the establishment of the Euro-zone promoted open exchange of goods and services throughout the region.

The removal of barriers developed the concept of a Single Market, a market in which both people and businesses could liberally propagate across territories in Europe. If we consider the facts, the market has grown from 345 million to 500 million consumers, and trade has grown from €800 billion to a massive €2,800 billion (European Union, 2012). The adoption of Euro by many countries removed the transaction costs for currency exchange, and removed currency risks, all of which boosted the trades. One vital figure we can see is that, as a result of a free market, Euro-zone was able to generate an additional estimated €330 billion GDP in 2010 (European Union, 2012). Thus, we can easily say that elimination of barriers automatically improved productivity within EU.

Likewise, the stronger economies were able to invest their capital on undiscovered alternatives present in weaker economies, and the weaker economies got access to the market with richer consumers. This created exactly the right environment for both rich and comparatively poor nations to flourish their trade capabilities. Therefore, EU’s output improved significantly when the restrictions were lifted.

References:

Rittenberg L., Tregarthen T. (n.d.), Confronting Scarcity: Choices in Production, Principles of Economics.

European Union (2012), 20 Years of the European Single market: Together for new growth Main achievements, Accessed: April 14, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.digitalplan.gov.gr/resource-api/dipla/contentObject/Single-Market-Achievements-web_en/content

Urbanization: causes, positives and negatives

          Urbanization occurs when people from rural areas move into urban centers for a number of reasons. This is promoted by both Push factors and Pull factors (Hammond, 2010). There can be some reasons for which a person would want to leave the countryside, while for some the attractions of the city life might more compelling. Hence, Wikipedia defines it as, “Urbanization is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of rural migration and even suburban concentration into cities, particularly the very largest ones” (Wikipedia, 2013). So, urbanization, in general, is a process of shifting of population from rural to urban areas.

          Moving on to the reasons behind urbanization, the first reason would be the search for better economic opportunities. People move into urban areas to find a job or for other economic opportunities like business which are not that rewarding in rural areas. Much of the economy or capital is supposed to be concentrated in cities where people can easily find a better way to uplift their economic status. In the same way, people move to urban areas for better access to important services. People in rural areas might not have every resource in their proximity. For example, if an accident occurs, there might not be enough medical facility for the victim in case it is a serious one. The person could easily die without necessary medical aid. Similarly, the basic everyday necessities like drinking water supply might not be available in rural areas. Similarly, people migrate to cities to get rid of hard life in the countryside. Living in countryside generally requires cultivating the required resources ourselves. Most activities we do are just for subsistence, and any unexpected calamity like flood and others can seriously affect our lives. On the other hand, urban life gives the opportunity to go beyond just subsistence by eradicating the need to be self-reliant for every job.

          Considering the positives and negatives of urban growth, urbanization is good because it promotes mutual understanding. People from all sorts of economic, cultural and religious backgrounds live together in cities in an interdependent way. We interact with more people and become more socially adjustable. It develops a sense of unity among diversity, and hence helps us to understand each other better. Another positive aspect would be that it makes efficient use of resources. Imagine 100 houses spread over 100 acres of land in a small village, and an apartment building with 100 households in just 10 acres of land in a city. There is an efficient use of the available resources in the cities, in this case, leaving behind the extra 90 acres of land for other purposes.

          However, urbanization is negative because of high cost of living. Although the living standard is high, it is lot more expensive to live in a city. If you do not make a decent earning, your life can be as hard as a rural life. Such problems can be seen in many cities in developing countries where people live in very poor conditions in slums. Living in rural area is much better than living in such condition. In the same way, urbanization is bad because it causes pollution. People have to endure a lot of noise and air pollution in cities. Such pollution can have very bad effects on health ranging from respiratory diseases to higher stress levels to sleeplessness. Urban life is also related with ailments  like obesity as well as fatal health problems like heart diseases.
          So, urbanization is propelled by many factors which ultimately can have both positive and negative effects. It is basically up to the people to decide where to live. One offers opportunities while other a peaceful life. Until and unless we are satisfied with our living it is not a big problem to live together with millions or mere thousands.

References:

Wikipedia (2013), Urbanization, Accessed: March 19, 2013, Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization

Hammond, Dr. R.J. (2010), Urbanization, Introduction to Sociology (Smashwords Edition), pp. 194-202

Unknown (2010, July 1), Urbanization Its Causes, Effects and Benefits, Accessed: March 19, 2013, Retrieved from: http://whyarticles.com/urbanization-its-causeseffects-and-benefits/    

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Schooling: Importance and inequality

          Sociological theories can be used to describe many social processes, and clearly, we can analyze schooling using them. There many macro and micro theories available to us, but we will use two theories to shed some light on our praise as well as criticism of schooling. 

          So, let us see the importance of schooling using the Structural-functionalism theory. It states that “society is in a state of balance and kept that way through the function of society's component parts” (Hammond, 2010). According to it, the problems in the society can be taken in a similar way like dysfunctions in our body. We can identify the dysfunctions and use our understanding to correct them. As far as societies are concerned, most of them actually find the equilibrium and retain it. Now, if we relate it with schooling, someone with more years of schooling will certainly be more aware of social harmony, will have a better understanding of personal and collective needs of the society, an improved sense of mutual cooperation and open-minded thinking. If such people are in large number in the society, they will find the balance more easily, unlike the historical cases where lack of understanding have resulted in even social collapse. So, schooling is an important aspect of having social balance; higher the average years of schooling, higher is the probability of social harmony.

          Now, from the opposite point of view, we have another Sociological theory that can be applied to see how schooling gives continuity to social inequality. The Conflict Theory states that “that those who have perpetually try to increase their wealth at the expense and suffering of those who have not” (Hammond, 2010). This theory, when applied to schooling, reiterates the same process. People holding the larger resources have access to better schooling, while those, who do not have, have to even drop out of schools due to their inability to afford good education. The richer ones can easily send their children to better institutions and provide them every possible facility paving the way for a stable future. With a lot of money at their disposal, they do not even have the pressure to succeed in studies or finding a job. On the contrary, the poor ones have to think of their socio-economic status before thinking of joining any elite institution for higher education. In addition, they have to handle the pressure to be as much competitive with apparently less amount of resources to help them. In this way, schooling gives continuity to the trend of social inequality.  

          So, this was a general overview of how schooling influences our society. It actually depends on our personal perception to realize how important or unfair it is. Nevertheless, one thing is true for sure; it is always better to be educated, regardless of your socio-economic status.

Reference:

Hammond, Dr. R.J. (2010), Social Theories, Introduction to Sociology (Smashwords Edition), p. 17-27

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

How society shapes family?

          Just like an individual is a fundamental unit of family, family is the fundamental unit of society. In the same way, just like the family has influences on an individual, society has influences on the family. It is also important to consider that the influences are mutual i.e. families as a unit shape the society, and society shapes basic values within families. So, let us see how society shapes family in three different ways.

1.    The hierarchy of a family is shaped by the society. Traditionally, the society has been patriarchal in most of the countries which gives the main authority in the family to the eldest male member. However, as the society has evolved over time, in many countries the society is becoming more inclined towards the Egalitarian approach where both authority and responsibility are balanced among both sexes.

2.    The size of the family is also shaped by the society. In past, the families used to be large, so called Joint Family, having many children and more than two generations living under same roof. It was thought that more helping hands would bolster the economic condition of the family. However, the society has changed now. There is more emphasis on independence. People prefer to live in Nuclear Family, where they can live the life like they want, giving birth to less children and fulfilling their smaller needs.

3.    The migration pattern is also shaped by the society. If a society is harmonious having right environment for leading a normal life, families tend to remain there. On the contrary, if a society is prone to frequent criminal activities and chaos, families move in order to find a better place. Also, the modern society with access to large number of transportation options and diverse opportunities is likely to see the families migrate quite often. In the same way, some families are culturally bound to migrate on and on, like gypsies. This is also shaped by the society.

          Apart from these, we can find many more examples, which can be different according to the society we live in. Nonetheless, we can still find common things among vast number of societies spread across the world.

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Gender Roles and Inequality

          In my opinion, gender roles exist because we are “conditioned” to do so since a long time. Historically, we have adapted more or less the same perception towards each gender, and although there have been many positive reforms, the influence of that “conditioning” still has a long way to eventually become more balanced. For example, since our childhood we are cultured to reflect our gender. Young girls generally play with their tea sets and dolls, while young boys play with action figures or try some physical sports. It is not that they are not interested in the things of the other side, we have seen great women athletes as well as male fashion designers, but we are shaped by the views passed on from generation to generation. That is why I think gender roles exist.

          Analyzing the above facts closely, we can say that gender is something “learned” to a large extent. The values and norms about how a person belonging to a particular gender should behave are revealed to us since our childhood. We are introduced to the things that are feminine or masculine in nature, and are directed towards the relevant ones. Then, we are exposed to the attributes like “strong”, “emotional”, “rough”, and “caring” to name a few, that ultimately make us aware of our association with particular gender. And, basically those things shape our thinking for the rest of our lives.

          Gender roles clearly create inequality in the society. Until and unless the gender roles stress on the superiority of a particular gender, there will always be inequality. Imagine if a man is running a race with complete independence while a woman is carrying children, household works and economic dependency on her back, would it be a fair race? This is certainly the case in many developing countries where gender roles have increased the responsibilities but limited the opportunities for women. So, as long as the gender roles remain conservative, we can never expect a wise solution to inequality.   

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Are we born with culture?

I personally think that our basic perception towards the society develops right from our childhood when we are exposed to culture for the first time. As we grow up, our understanding of our environment is more and more influenced by the values and norms we follow. The more time we spend in a particular culture, we are more likely to develop the behavior which is considered as "normal" in that culture. For example, a person who is raised in a vegetarian family is most likely to remain vegetarian throughout his/her life regardless of the changes he might face in his life. However, behavior is also a matter of free-will. No one can be forced to change his natural drives. So, we can say that culture has influences on behavior but it is not shaped only by it.

Analyzing the facts present in the assigned reading coupled with my personal views, I think that culture is not something humans are both with. From the definition of culture itself “Culture is the shared values, norms, symbols, language, objects, and way of life that is passed on from one generation to the next.” (Hammond R.J., 2010), we know that it has no direct relation with the biological factors. Although it is something inherited from our preceding generation, it is nothing like the DNA which is naturally present since birth. A child has to spend a lot of years before finally knowing his/her culture, and develop an understanding of social norms and values.

If we consider a naturally biological process like Human Height Growth, some of us might be surprised that it has only 0.57 correlations with the average height of our parents. There are many socio-economic and environmental factors that make up the remaining 0.43 (Wikipedia, 2013). So, generalizing that culture is present since our birth would be a huge fallacy.

Similarly, the best example in this case would be the adopted children. Without any doubt, the genetics will determine most of their natural abilities and behavior, but they will learn the culture in which they are nurtured. It is possible that the twins grown up in different cultures will have different social beliefs even though they are biologically similar to the closest possible extent. Therefore, it is the society that determines our culture; no one is inherited with social heritage.  

References:

Hammond, R.J. (2010), Culture, Introduction to Sociology (Smashwords Edition) (pp. 43)

Wikipedia (2013), Determinants of growth and height, Human height, Accessed: February 13, 2013, Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_height     

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Homosexuality: Nature or illness?

Homosexuality was traditionally considered as a “mental illness” according to many psychologists. However, this idea succumbed when they failed to “produce any empirical or scientific basis” to term it as a psychological abnormality (Wikipedia, 2012). Since then, homosexuality is taken as just a normal case of different sexual orientation. So, it is more of a “born this way” thing than a “choice”.

Homosexuality is not heavily prevalent in our societies when we study from the surface. In terms of demography, only a small percentage of people are known to be homosexual. However, the number can be higher because many of them do not openly show up themselves due to negative social attitudes towards them (like homophobia) in most of the world, despite the fact that it is now more accepted in some western countries.  

When explaining homosexuality using biology, researchers have found that the areas of the hypothalamus in homosexual people are different from that of heterosexual ones (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 317). Also, if one of the identical twins is homosexual, there is a high probability that another would also be so (Charles Stangor, Introduction to Psychology, p. 317).   

Homosexuality is also related with psychological adjustment. Not all homosexual people accept their biological sexual orientation, and try to change to heterosexual against their biology due to negative personal, social and religious perceptions towards it. In such a case, they generally seek so called “Gay affirmative psychotherapy” in order to psychologically adjust to the fact that homosexuality is natural and not a mental illness (Wikipedia, 2012). So, we can say that homosexuality is no more considered as an illness, it is more of a genetic outcome.

References:

Stangor, Charles (n.d.), Emotions and Motivation, Introduction to Psychology, pp.317

Wikipedia (2012), Homosexuality and Psychology, Accessed: October 9, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality_and_psychology

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Brain Drain: A negative consequence of Globalization

Brain Drain (or the Human Capital Flight in a more formal language) is one of the major negative consequences of Globalization. It can be defined as “the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge” (Wikipedia, 2013). Due to the development in information and communication technology across the world because of Globalization, the capable people of even the least developed countries become attracted towards the better opportunities and life standard of developed ones. And hence, if a suitable chance comes their way, they grab it with their both hands, leaving behind the miseries of their native countries, towards a more promising future.

It is problematic to both the source and the host countries. The developing countries which already have economic poverty also have to suffer from “intellectual” poverty. On the other hand, for some people in the host country, it might be the matter of serious financial trouble. Such countries have to face the problem of satisfying their real citizens as their job positions can become occupied by foreign nationals or naturalized immigrants. In this way, the people who could have helped their countries to build a better future and lead them become just normal people in another country due to their concern for personal future. Inevitably, many of those talented people might have studied with the government aid and scholarships. So, it also wastes the investment put in by the government hoping that they will do something good for their country (Wikipedia, 2013). The developing countries therefore lag further behind in their bid to improve themselves. They virtually lose even the potential to become a developed one in future, and Globalization plays an integral part in it.

Can science create perfect human being?

In the past hundred years, there have been significant developments in the field of medical science. There have been tremendous achievements like heart transplant (by Doctor Christian Bernard), cloning and genetic modification (For instance, use of growth hormone for preventing hereditary dwarfism). From methods to the equipment all aspects of medical sector have been revolutionized. Scientists are now working on unbelievable and unimaginable things like artificial blood, stem cell (cells which can generate specific body parts) and many more. But we still come across manifold forms of limitations which are related with our physical, mental and social conditions. Every time we move ahead new barriers come forth and we always remain imperfect. Thus it’s a challenge for science to create a perfect “Homo Sapiens”.

A perfect human being, according to different people, has compassion and kindness or goodness and decency or physical and mental fitness, unselfishness and piety also. Since the dawn of civilization, man has striven to perfect himself, emulating those who have achieved greatness. “Cultures across the globe have written vast amounts of amazing literature containing guidelines to enlightenment and perfection.” (K. Snow, n.d.) But with so many guidelines out there, how do we know for sure which ones are the most important to follow? Scientists may think that perfect human is the most genius person. A child may imagine a person like his favorite superhero. A religious man may think of Lord Buddha or Jesus. Thus, it is not possible to create such a personality who is conceptually different for all people. A perfect person for one can be imperfect for the rest.

Even if people agree on a point and set a universal standard for making the perfect human being, he would not be perfect. Something that is made artificially cannot be perfect in itself because we, its creator, are not perfect. He will have some flaws which will be unidentified and will only be seen when he goes through the real life.  Nature itself makes us evolve into a better race. Each generation comes becoming more developed than its predecessors. If we try to be quicker than the natural process surely nature will limit us i.e. the one who is better than anyone ever imagined may not adapt with people who commit mistakes and who cannot adapt with society cannot be taken as the ideal personality.

Similarly, the branches of science related with improvement in performance and ability of living beings have always come up with new discoveries and with them, new side effects. Genetic engineering used to improve yield of food crops has made many people victims to the newly discovered food allergy. Chemicals (like calcium carbide) can be used to ripen fruits earlier but its consumption can lead to catastrophic results like Cancer. In such a condition, we cannot be certain that the perfect human created by science will actually be perfect. In the same way, something that is flawless for the time being may not be in future. Every time we become immune to something we become vulnerable to some new outbreak. Each time we improve something in us there is another drawback ready to hinder us. So, we can never think of being or making something perfect.

Even if we develop ourselves to a large extent there is always place for improvement. All the explorations were possible due to humans’ desire for more, greater for reaching perfection. Both nature and science have helped us to do so. But on the whole, we always desire for more which never allows us to be perfect.

References:

Snow, K. (n.d.), What Makes an Ideal Human Being?, Accessed: January 12, 2013, Retrieved from:  http://www.trvnews.com/tmn/022205/idealhuman.html

Blockk, A. (n.d.), What does anyone think the perfect human is? What are the traits that underlie this concept?, Accessed: January 12, 2013, Retrieved from: http://antoniusblockk.hubpages.com/hub/What-is-the-Perfect-Human

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Globalization: Positive or Negative

Globalization has both positive and negative aspects. I personally think that it depends on the perspective which is used to analyze the factors related with Globalization. If we think of the world economy dominated by a small group of nations, Globalization looks to be unfair on developing nations. And the other way round, if we think about studying in an online university, regardless of the national boundaries and economic constraints, Globalization is like a blessing. However, these are not the only points which make us so divisive; we need to take a deeper look into it.

So, let’s take a look at the positive side.

1. Better trade, business and job opportunities (Mourduokotas, 2011).

2. Joint efforts in tackling global issues like global crimes, Epidemics, and Environmental issues.

3. Establishment of international aid agencies to help developing nations.

4. Technological innovation and knowledge sharing (Goldin, 2012).

5. Emergence of International NGOs to improve lives at grassroots level.

6. Opportunities for global research and development.

7. People around the world get to know each other better by sharing their culture.

8. Worldwide sporting events like FIFA World Cup and the Olympics promote global harmony (Economic-geography.org, 2012).

9. Increased cooperation between countries. 

10. New sources of income for developing countries like Remittances. 

11. Enforcement of global laws like Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Copyright laws. 

12. Declination of language barriers, hence increase in communication (Economic-geography.org, 2012).

Now, let’s see some of its negative consequences.

1. Monopoly of powerful nations.

2. Illegal Immigration (Economic-geography.org, 2012).

3. Spread of global diseases.

4. Sweatshops: Use of cheap labor in developing countries and selling goods at high price worldwide (Economic-geography.org, 2012). 

5. Threat to local cultures due to increasing influence from popular cultures.

6. Occurrence of Trade Wars.

7. Rise in global crimes.

8. Large funds wasted due to failure of aid projects.

Inevitably, a lot more can be added to both sides. However, the points above give us a general idea that even if there are negative effects, the positive results can compensate for them. Considering, the negative aspects, I think that they can be regulated because most of them are due to weakness in laws and policies, and lack of awareness in people. So, some reinforcement in government policies and international laws, and increase in public awareness programs can greatly assist in tackling the negative influences of Globalization.   

References:

Mourdoukoutas, P. (September 10, 2011), The Good, The Bad, And The Ugly Side of Globalization, Accessed: January 6, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/panosmourdoukoutas/2011/09/10/the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-side-of-globalization/

Goldin, I. (February 1, 2012), Globalization: The good, The bad and the Uncertain, Accessed: January 6, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.theglobalist.com/storyid.aspx?StoryId=9519

Economic-geography.org (July 5, 2012), Effects of Globalization, Accessed: January 6, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.economic-geography.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98:effects-of-globalization&catid=98:inf&Itemid=85

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

World Bank and IMF Aids: Do they always work?

If we think rationally, there are good and bad sides of almost everything and these institutions are no exceptions. Regarding the intentions behind establishment of the IMF and the World Bank, along with the ever-present criticism, it is really difficult to strictly choose any one side. However, after weighing both sides, I feel that they deny the receiving nations the freedom and flexibility of utilizing aids, and overpower the local policies with the ones of their interests, which itself questions the purpose of these institutions.

We can take example of Singapore which was given only a small amount of aid from the World Bank but it achieved huge economic growth (Bryan T. Johnson, 1996). The main reason behind it was the emphasis on the freedom of productive services of the economy rather than the World Bank aid. If Singapore had not focused on making its economy more liberal and kept on relying on loans it would have been never been able to achieve the success it is enjoying right now.

Similarly, the economies that are receiving aid from the World Bank have not been able to uplift their standards significantly. There even cases where instead of growing, the economies shrunk after aid projects (Bryan T. Johnson, 1996). The aid receiving countries generally have no substantial influence on how the projects will be run. The projects are approved by the executive panel and enforced in the way they think is right. Just to ensure that the aid is utilized well, they hinder the countries from controlling the activities going on in their economy. 

Moreover, the projects directly fund the issues like health and education, than promoting economic reforms which can have more impact on ensuring economic independence and sustainability. The situation is thus analogous to the saying, “If you give a man a fish, he will eat that day. If you teach him to fish, he will eat for his lifetime”. In such a condition, we can generalize that the economies are not able to achieve long-term development when they heavily rely on such agencies for assistance. They have no other choice than letting the projects work and expect that good things will come. They never become economically independent.

Reference:

Johnson, B. T. (May 16, 1996), The World Bank and Economic Growth: 50 Years of Failure, Accessed: November 28, 2012, Retrieved from: http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1996/05/bg1082nbsp-the-world-bank-and-economic-growth

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013

Abnormal Behavior and Psychological Disorders

The world is full of diversity. We all are different from each other. We have our own behaviors and own thoughts. This is what makes this world such an exciting place. In the same way, we also have some common habits that make us alike. We refer to those common things which we regularly do as being “normal”. However, not all people behave or think like most of us might do. In general sense, their thoughts deviate significantly from normal patterns, which sometimes seriously influence their normal behavior. We term such behavior and thoughts to be “abnormal”.

A behavior or thought can be abnormal because of many different reasons. Firstly, it might be due to Biological factors. Scientific studies have found that the genetic characters and the orientation of neurotransmitters can make people more susceptible to specific mental abnormalities. Such characteristics might be genetically inherited by children and they might be likely to suffer the abnormalities like their parents. Secondly, it might be due to Psychological factors. Even if the person has not inherited vulnerable genes, she/he might have abnormal behaviors if she/he is exposed to a lot of stress and emotionally distressing situations. Finally, it might be due to Social factors. A poor person is more like to face stressful situations in his life due to weaker socio-economic condition, which contribute to development of abnormal behavior. All these factors collectively make our behavior and thought abnormal.

Having abnormal behavior or thought itself is not a serious problem. Some people have habit of biting nails too often, which is certainly abnormal, but it is not a “disorder” until it causes serious distress for the person. In order to check whether a behavior is abnormal there have been different criteria. With the development in the psychology more improved methods have been developed. The currently used criterion is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It uses the data collected about the previous cases of various abnormal behaviors to diagnose any abnormality in behavior. However, it is not consistent with the diagnosis because it does not contain the exact symptoms but only the descriptions of the category which were known to have that disorder. Also, it has been criticized for listing even some common problems like “academic problems” as potential a psychological disorder (Stangor, p. 366). So, we can say that it does not help in fully identifying a person for having a psychological disorder, and thus it is insufficient.     

Considering the causes of a Psychological Disorder, almost all disorders have biological and environmental causes behind them. For instance, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is known to have genetic influences from twin studies as well as socio-economic factors like stress in family and poverty (Stangor, p. 368). Similarly, in Autism, the neglecting nature of parents is the main environmental factor while heredity also has a role as high as 90% (Stangor, p.368). In the same way, in case of Schizophrenia many biological and environmental factors work together in development of the disorder (Stangor, p.384).

In conclusion, small extent of uncommon behavior cannot be taken as abnormal, and even if it is more frequent we cannot say that it is a disorder until it affects the person seriously. It is usually difficult to diagnose abnormality, but there are ways to indentify it and find the causes behind it. Therefore, we must be careful in our decision to say someone’s behavior as abnormal.

Reference:

Stangor, C. (2010), Introduction to Psychology, Defining Psychological Disorders, p. 357-394
 

© Dixit Bhatta 2013

Test Bias and Stereotype Threat

Since the dawn of education system in human civilization, there have been various methods to measure aptitude of the students, to check how much they have learned. With the change in education system, there have been reforms in testing mechanisms too. Nowadays, in order to make a test “fair” to everyone, so called standardized tests have been developed. However, such tests are not free from frailties. It is because despite of being academically standard, they are socioeconomically, culturally, racially and even in terms of gender unfair to certain extents. Such cases can be explained using topics like test bias and stereotype threat.

According to Writeslaw.com (2009), test bias is “The difference in test scores that is attributable to demographic variables (e.g., gender, ethnicity, and age).” It has also been termed as Cultural Bias (Schellenberg, 2004). So, it is clear that there is an inevitable relationship between test bias and culture. Generally, it is found that people of particular culture are favored by a specific test than other cultures. For instance, let us take a person from middle-income family, who will certainly have a different way of life (culture) than a rich person. On average she/he will be less likely to be as good as her/his rich counterparts, if a test focuses more on the things that rich people are used to like expensive cars or other items of luxury.  

Similarly, “Stereotype threat refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group.” (Reducingstereotypethreat.org, n.d.). It is obvious from the definition that Stereotype Threat is directly related with the groups that are normally considered as inferior, which in general sense can be applied to the races that are considered as minority or less powerful. Also, in case of gender, women are more likely to face stereotype threat as men have dominated women across many cultures throughout the world. If a test emphasizes more on a particular race or gender, it is more likely that the other races or gender will feel lack of confidence and as a result perform poorer than in normal condition (Reducingstereotypethreat.org, n.d.).

To give an example, we can take the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) reasoning test. In it, we can divide the test takers into two categories: US high-school graduates and International students. The test shows test bias in a sense that most international students had a good score in Mathematics section but a poor score in Critical Reading section. It is purely logical to say that the one who is a native speaker of English will have a better vocabulary, and can easily do better than non-native speakers like most international students in Critical Reading tasks. And that was why the Critical Reading scores of international students turned out to be poorer when compared to the native speakers.

Similarly, the stereotype threat was there in terms of socioeconomic factor i.e. richer students and poorer students. As some people may not be from a well-off family, the registration cost readily becomes an economic burden for them, and they feel the pressure to do well in a single attempt. On the other hand, the richer counterparts can appear the test twice and even thrice to achieve a better score, which necessarily does not mean that they are better. However, in the end, the highest scores across all the tests are considered, and they are evaluated to be better than whom they actually might not be.   

Therefore, just giving a uniform pattern of questions in order to test the intelligence is not enough in analyzing true ability of the test taker. There are many cultural, racial and socioeconomic factors behind it. As long as such factors influence the test taker when appearing that intelligence test, it is almost inevitable to get accurate or fair enough judgments about an individual’s intelligence.

References:

Wikipedia (2012), Race and Intelligence, Accessed: October 10, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence

Reducingstereotypethreat.org (n.d.) , What is stereotype threat? Accessed: October 10, 2012, http://reducingstereotypethreat.org/definition.html

Schellenberg, S. J. (2004), Test Bias or Cultural Bias: Have We Really Learned Anything? , Accessed: October 10, 2012, http://datacenter.spps.org/uploads/Test_Bias_Paper.pdf

Wrightslaw.com (2009),Glossary of Assessment terms, Accessed: October 10, 2012,  http://www.wrightslaw.com/links/glossary.assessment.htm

 © Dixit Bhatta 2013